*K. B. N College, Kothpet, Vijayawada,Andhra Pradesh, India, Email sambasivarao563@yahoo.co.in

1. K. B. N College, Kothpet, Vijayawada,Andhra Pradesh, India

Email naik.samba@gmail.com

2. Acharya Nagarjuna University,Nagarjuna Nagar, 522510,Guntur, Andhra Pradesh, India

Email id. nagallagopalrao@yahoo.com

Abstract

Probiotics represent a group of useful bacteria that provides a wide range of benefits. These valuable bacteria produce defense against various infections including bacteria and viruses and establish healthy homeostasis with host. Recent findings have also demonstrated that probiotics help in regulation of several biochemical parameters including carbohydrate utilization, lipid profile and protein metabolism. The selected probiotics also aid in absorption of several vitamins and vital mineral elements. Shrimps farming were growing aquaculture worldwide and emerged as an alternative source of food for humanity. The commercial shrimp farming acquires several technological inputs to ensure quality and yield. On the contrary, there are several limitations associated with shrimps farming where infection and associated diseases to growing shrimps is major one. Traditionally, chemical-based antimicrobial and antibiotic agents remain a cheap alternate to tackle such challenges. The use of chemical-based antimicrobials and antibiotic agents indeed harmful to the environment but also affect quality of growing shrimps. Probiotics gained tremendous success in aquaculture not only to protect against various infections but also in improving growth of shrimps. Here, in the present study we aimed to study effect of probiotics on biochemical profile of growing shrimps. Further, use of probiotics on the immune system of growing shrimps was also investigated. Here, in the present study Giant tiger prawn Penaeus monodon was used as model shrimp to study effect of various probiotics on growth profile. Shrimps were fed with the Lactobacillus lactis AR21 as probiotic. The effect of probiotics on biochemical and immune parameters was analyzed in time-dependent manner. The result shows that probiotics not only provide protection against invading pathogens but also improve immunity of growing shrimps.

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*K. B. N College, Kothpet, Vijayawada,Andhra Pradesh, India, Email sambasivarao563@yahoo.co.in

1. K. B. N College, Kothpet, Vijayawada,Andhra Pradesh, India

Email naik.samba@gmail.com

2. Acharya Nagarjuna University,Nagarjuna Nagar, 522510,Guntur, Andhra Pradesh, India

Email id. nagallagopalrao@yahoo.com

Abstract

Probiotics represent a group of useful bacteria that provides a wide range of benefits. These valuable bacteria produce defense against various infections including bacteria and viruses and establish healthy homeostasis with host. Recent findings have also demonstrated that probiotics help in regulation of several biochemical parameters including carbohydrate utilization, lipid profile and protein metabolism. The selected probiotics also aid in absorption of several vitamins and vital mineral elements. Shrimps farming were growing aquaculture worldwide and emerged as an alternative source of food for humanity. The commercial shrimp farming acquires several technological inputs to ensure quality and yield. On the contrary, there are several limitations associated with shrimps farming where infection and associated diseases to growing shrimps is major one. Traditionally, chemical-based antimicrobial and antibiotic agents remain a cheap alternate to tackle such challenges. The use of chemical-based antimicrobials and antibiotic agents indeed harmful to the environment but also affect quality of growing shrimps. Probiotics gained tremendous success in aquaculture not only to protect against various infections but also in improving growth of shrimps. Here, in the present study we aimed to study effect of probiotics on biochemical profile of growing shrimps. Further, use of probiotics on the immune system of growing shrimps was also investigated. Here, in the present study Giant tiger prawn Penaeus monodon was used as model shrimp to study effect of various probiotics on growth profile. Shrimps were fed with the Lactobacillus lactis AR21 as probiotic. The effect of probiotics on biochemical and immune parameters was analyzed in time-dependent manner. The result shows that probiotics not only provide protection against invading pathogens but also improve immunity of growing shrimps.

Keywords:

Shrimps farming, probiotics, antimicrobials and antibiotics agents, immunity, biochemical parameters.

Introduction

In modern times, aquaculture emerged as the most crucial alternate for food to humans. The freshwater and marine aquaculture firms gained tremendous commercial growth in last decade. The shrimps farming are one of the essential aspects of grown freshwater aquaculture in India and worldwide [1]. There are several species of shrimp’s cultivated worldwide and India as well. The common shrimps’ species for freshwater aquaculture are Panaeus japonicas, Panaeus. vannamei, and Panaeus. monodon with commercial importance. The Penaeus monodon also called an Asian giant tiger fish account for world’s 60% of shrimp’s production. India is one of leading shrimps producers and vast coastal line provides all necessary benefits to large scale commercial production [2]. In India southern states including West Bengal, Orissa, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Pondicherry, Kerala, Karnataka, Goa, Maharashtra and Gujarat account for more than 90% of Indian shrimps production. As per recent report from India’s Marine Products Exports Development Authority (MPEDA) West Bengal, Andhra Pradesh and Tamilnadu are leading shrimp’s producers in India. The modern technologies and emerging tools in aquaculture significantly enhanced annual production of shrimps not only in India but other parts of world. However, shrimp farming remains associated with several threats that cut down annual output and quality as well [3]. There are several risk factors related to commercial shrimp farming. Microbial infection and associated diseases are major ones that not only hamper annual production yield but also affect quality of growing shrimp [4]. The bacterial and viral infections are more common and frequent hurdles associated with large scale shrimp farming.

To control infections and associated diseases use of probiotics gained tremendous success in the last decades and several bacterial species were evaluated for their probiotics potential. Studies also have shown that use of probiotics also improves the immunity of growing shrimps [5, 6]. There are several bacterial species identified and assessed for probiotics potential including Lactobacillus acidophilus, Carnobacterium divergens, Lactobacillus rhamnosus, Lactobacillus plantarum, Lactobacillus sakei, Lactobacillus pentosus, Lactobacillus brevis, Pediococcus pentosaceus and Bacillus subtilis etc. These probiotics provide a wide range of benefits including reduced mortality of growing shrimps, improves growth and metabolic activities, increase survival rate by controlling infections [7]. Several bacillus species including Bacillus circulans reported improving immunity of growing shrimps. In another study it was reported that B. licheniformis improve resistance against diseases. Both gram-positive and gram-negative species of several bacterial genera have shown probiotics potential [8].

The probiotics potential is not limited to bacterial species but also several fungal species have demonstrated significant scope of probiotics and dominant fungal species were identified are Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Debaryomyces hansenii etc. However, the Lactobacillus species were extensively studied for their probiotics potential for aquaculture including shrimp farming [9]. The gram-positive bacteria as probiotics mostly belong to few genera including lactobacillus, bacillus, Carnobacteria, Leuconostoc, Pediococcus, Vagococcus and Enterococcus.
On another hand, gram-negative bacteria species for probiotics uses were identified from selected genus including Pseudomonas, Aeromonas, Shewanella, Enterobacter, Roseobacter and Vibrio. There is growing scientific literature suggesting an enhanced growth and biochemical homeostasis in probiotics fed shrimps over control study. The total protein content, glucose utilization and lipid profiles were studied and reported a beneficial correlation in growing shrimps over control studies. Many studies have utilized whole or components of microbial cells as Immunostimulants, specifically to stimulate the immune system against pathogens. Lipopolysaccharides (LPS) from Gram-negative bacteria, vibrio vaccines, Clostridium butyricum spores, and glucan from yeast cell walls have been evaluated for use in aquaculture [10]. Though shrimps have a primitive immune system however effect of probiotics has a close resemblance to human studies. Many studies have demonstrated that shrimps fed with probiotics during their larval stage stimulate production of immune cells and immune mediators precisely anti-inflammatory and antiviral agents to protect against invading pathogens. These probiotic induces biosynthesis of several enzymes and other molecules. Lower animals possess unique molecules and enzymes with diverse activities essentially play a vital role in host deference mechanism [11, 12]. Probiotics also stimulate production of various essential intermediates help in fighting against bacterial infections.

Materials and Methods

The Shrimps strains were collected from local shrimp farming firms at Vijayawada, Andhra Pradesh, India. The Giant tiger prawn (Penaeus monodon) was collected for research purposes only. The probiotics strains were purchased from The Microbial Type Culture Collection and Gene Bank (MTCC), Chandigarh. All the consumables and chemicals used in present work were purchased from Sigma Aldrich India and Hi-Media India of research-grade. The shrimps were maintained at grown conditions prescribed by Indian council of agriculture research.

The bacterial strain used as probiotic Lactobacillus lactis AR2 and control was maintained at prescribed growth media as per MTCC recommendation. No probiotics were fed to growing shrimps for control study. During the study standard microbiological and molecular protocols were followed. The bacterial species were stored at -40°C and discarded after experiment by autoclave. The recommended growth media were used in the present study to grow probiotics.

Experimental design

The giant tiger prawn was collected from a local aquaculture facility and kept in laboratory for ten days. The mature shrimps (bodyweight approximately 10gm) were subjected to growth studies and biochemical parameter analysis. The shrimps were further grown into laboratory set up in a container with continuous aeration with a combination of fresh and marine water. The salinity of freshwater was adjusted to 25ppm and absolute sterility was maintained during the study.

The shrimps were acclimatized for laboratory conditions and divided into three groups and each group contains five healthy and mature animals. The experiment was carried out 30 days with control study where shrimps were fed with commercial food without any probiotics strains. The experimental groups of shrimps were fed with commercial food with selected probiotics (1×108 CFU) at regular intervals five times in day. Shrimps were fed with commercial food incorporated with active probiotics strains in increasing concentrations 5, 10, 15 and 20%. The tank was maintained at 30°C, pH 8.0 and 25rpm for entire experiment. The fresh and marine water was replaced with a new supply on an alternate day.

Collection of Haemolymph

Haemolymph is key body fluid in shrimps rich in several biochemical parameters including immune cells and molecules. The haemolymph was collected from four

week grown shrimps fed with commercial food mixed with selected probiotics strains. The haemolymph (1ml) was isolated via sterile syringe from first abdominal segment (ventral sinus). Haemolymph was collected from each group of growing shrimp along with control study as well. The anticoagulant was added in haemolymph to avoid any chance of clotting. The plasma was removed from haemolymph by brief spin at 4000rpm for 15 min at 4°C. The haemolymph separated from plasma from each group was stored in sterile tubes at -80°C for further studies.

Effect on growth profile

The growth of growing shrimps was measured during the experiment. The growth profile of shrimps was evaluated as Mean weight, Weight gain, Daily weight gain (DWG) and relative gain rate (RGR), Specific growth rate (SGR). The growth profile of shrimps supplemented with probiotics was compared with shrimps without probiotics. The daily increase in growth of growing shrimps was calculated as ratio of total growth weight gain and duration of study in days. The formula for specific and relative growth weight gain is given in table below as per finding carried out Sandeepa et al 2015 [13].

Effect of probiotics on biochemical parameters

The haemolymph was used for the analysis of various biochemical and immunological parameters in growing shrimps supplemented with probiotics and control studies as well. The glucose utilization, lipid profile and total protein content were estimated in experimental and control studies. Here, we used readymade kits for glucose estimation, lipid profile and protein estimation. The protocol was followed as per instructions made by the supplier. The haemolymph of different study groups and control studies was subjected to biochemical analysis. For glucose estimation we used here readymade kit CBA086 from Sigma Aldrich. For serum triglycerides level TR0100 from Merck and TP0100-1KT from sigma Aldrich was used for total protein estimation.

Effect of probiotics on immune parameters

Shrimps possess the primitive type of immune system, in the absence of a specific immune system among invertebrates; the non-specific immune system plays a vital role. Redox enzymes are active immune players in shrimps. The level of glutathione (GSH) and thioredoxin (TRX) were analyzed in isolated haemolymph of study and control group. A fluorometric assay kit CAD 612 from Abcam was used for estimation of glutathione (GSH) while Thioredoxin Reductase Assay Kit (ab83463) was used for thioredoxin estimation.

Results and discussion
Given the experimental setup, shrimps were fed with selected probiotics for a one-month duration mixed with commercial food. The biochemical and immunological parameters were analyzed with control study.

Effect on growth profile

The growth profile of shrimps fed with probiotic strain was evaluated and compared with control studies. The average body weight was recorded with the ratio of daily rise in body weight overtime period of research and probiotic supplementation. As a result shown in figure 1 (a, b) and data provided in table 1 the probiotic had a positive stimulation on growth profile of shrimp. At initial phase there was no difference in body weight in probiotic fed shrimp and control study. Compare to control study the rise in body weight was reported maximum (10.2 ± 0.80 gm) with 15% probiotic supplementation mixed with commercial food. Research also shows here a further increase in probiotic concentration in feed does not have beneficial impact on shrimp growth profile [14].

Effect of probiotics on biochemical parameters

Among biochemical parameters, total protein content, serum triglyceride level and glucose utilization were estimated in probiotic fed shrimps over control study. The shrimps fed with probiotic mixed with commercial food for given duration (30 days) reported metabolically active and increased consumption of glucose was reported. The glucose estimation from haemolymph shows a gradual rise in glucose utilization in probiotic fed shrimps over control study. A maximum glucose utilization as function of level of glucose in haemolymph was reported 27.41 ± 0.41 mg/dl with 15% of probiotic supplementation (table 2 and figure 2 (a, b)). Further, a higher percentage of probiotic supplementation may attenuate metabolic activity of growing animals and reported a decrease in glucose utilization [15]. A similar pattern was seen in total protein content of haemolymph. The metabolic activity is function of anabolic events and synthesis of various molecules including proteins. As the result shown in figure 3 (a, b) and data presented in table 3 we have reported at 15% probiotic feed mixed with commercial food reported highest protein content (78.30 ± 0.80 mg/ml) in haemolymph compare to control study. Serum triglyceride level was other parameters estimated in probiotic fed shrimps versus control study to understand impact of probiotic on growth and metabolism of growing shrimps [16]. As the result shown in table 4 and figure 4 (a, b) at 10 and 15 % of probiotic supplement mixed with commercial-grade food reported rise in triglyceride levels (44.15 ± 0.24 and 44.85 ± 0.74 mg/dl respectively). These findings demonstrate probiotic supplementation had a beneficial role in shrimps growth and metabolic activities allowing animal to opt anabolic events and synthesize essential biomolecules [17].

Effect of probiotics on immune parameters

Shrimps evolved with primitive immune setup entirely different from humans and other higher animals i.e. non-specific immune system. The vital immune players in shrimp’s immunity are enzymes maintain homeostasis in a cellular environment. Here, we investigated proteins glutathione (GSH) and thioredoxin (TRX) in haemolymph of growing animals. These enzymes ensure and reduce oxidative stress caused by various invading pathogens. Compare to control study shrimps fed with probiotic have an elevated level of both the enzyme glutathione (GSH) and thioredoxin (TRX) in haemolymph [18, 19]. The rise in glutathione (GSH) and thioredoxin (TRX) in haemolymph was reported as function of concentration of probiotic incorporated into food. Compare to thioredoxin (TRX) level, the glutathione level was much high at 15% probiotic feed in the study. The study also signifies that glutathione is key enzyme for redox balance in animals and prevent pathogen mediated cellular damage. The study also reported a rise in thioredoxin (TRX) level compare to control investigation but less significant than glutathione (GSH) [20-22]. As a result shown in figure 5 (a, b) and data presented in table 5 level of glutathione (GSH) was reported maximum with 15% probiotic supplementation, On another hand, rise of thioredoxin (TRX) with probiotic supplement (15%) was not significant and said linear compare to control study.

Conclusion

Shrimp farming is well established industry in India and any other part of world. The modern aquaculture industry including shrimp farming emerged a commercial commodity and became an integral part of agriculture. Though these are several novel technologies and innovation improved yield and quality of shrimp but many challenges remain associated with industry [23]. Infections and associated diseases are fundamental threats to shrimp farming affecting annual production on large scale. The uses of conventional approaches such as antimicrobial and antibiotic agents have long history but not eco-friendly indirectly affecting human health.

In recent times, use of probiotic in shrimps farming not only enhanced annual yield but also nutritional values. Further, use of probiotic improve immunity of growing shrimps and reduce annual cost in shrimp farming. There are several bacterial and fungal species evaluated for probiotic potential but lactobacilli remain prime choice [24].
The use of probiotic improve metabolism, enhance anabolic pathways, and improve growth and immunity as well. These useful bacterial species grow utilization of nutrients such as glucose and trigger biosynthesis of proteins and fatty acids essential of growth and development. Shrimps have a primitive immune system and use of probiotic improve production of enzymes such as thioredoxin (TRX) and glutathione (GSH) reducing oxidative load in cellular environment often triggered by infections. The present work highlights a positive and beneficial role of probiotics in shrimp farming [25]. The use of probiotic allows farmer to opt for useful bacteria as an alternate over chemical-based antibiotic and antimicrobial agents that are not eco-friendly [26]. In recent time much emphasis was given to develop antibiotics and antimicrobials from biological origin to reduce load of chemical based compounds on environment (27-31). Certainly the work carried out in present study will support large scale use of probiotics not only shrimps farming but also in other aquaculture industries as well.

Acknowledgment
The author acknowledges Acharya Nagarjuna University, Guntur, Andhra Pradesh, India, for providing a facility for the current study.

Conflict of Interest
The author declares no conflict of interest.

References
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28. Sobha K, V Rao, Ratna K and Mahendra Kumar Verma, An Investigation into phytochemicals constituents, antioxidant, antibacterial and anti-cataract activity of Alternanthera sessilis, a predominant wild leafy vegetable of South India, Bio-catalysis and Agricultural Biotechnology, 2017; 10; 197-203
29. Verma MK, Xavier F, Verma MK, Sobha K. Evaluation of the Cytotoxic and Antitumor activity of Serine Proteases Isolated and Purified from the Indian Earthworm Pheretmia posthuma, Asian Pacific Journal of Tropical Biomedicine. 2013; 3 (11): 896-901.

30. Verma MK and Verma MK, Earthworm- a potential source for stable and potent antimicrobial compounds- isolation and purification study, 2012, International Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences.4; 4, 540-543
31. K Sobha, N Lalitha, N Pavani, R Praharshini, D Pradeep, Verma MK, Statistical optimization of Factors influencing the activity and the kinetics of partially purified Lipase produced from Aspergillus japonicus (MTCC 1975) cultured in protein enriched medium, International Journal of Chem Tech Research, 2014, 6,11,4817-4831
32. Verma MK and Sobha K, Antioxidant and Anti-Inflammatory Properties of Autolysed Extract of the Indian Earthworm Pheretima posthuma after Preliminary Purification – An In Vitro Study, Research Journal of Pharmaceutical, Biological and Chemical Sciences (RJPBCS), 2013, 4, 4, 888-892

Tables and Figures

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1 Department of Community Medicine, University of Abuja, Abuja

Email: biyayanwankwo@yahoo.com

Phone: +234-8023805229

2 University of Abuja Teaching Hospital Gwagwalada

Abstract

Schistosomiasis or bilharziasis was named after Theodore Bilharz a German surgeon who worked in Cairo. He was the first person to identify the aetiological agent Schistosoma haematobium in 1851¹.Urinary schistosomiasis is a chronic inflammatory disease that affects urinary bladder caused by the schistosomes (eggs) laid by the helminth Schistosoma haematobium.²

The aim of the study was to determine the prevalence and intensity of urinary schistosomiasis among primary school children in Angwan-dodo community.

A multistage sampling method was used.Using a sterile universal bottle, urine samples were obtained from the subjects and transported immediately to the laboratory for analysis.

A total number of 336 samples were examined for the presence of the ova of Schistosoma among children within the ages of 6-17years in Angwan Dodo.Mean egg intensity was 30.0 ± 17.2 standard deviation(SD) with highest intensity being 59 eggs/10ml and the lowest 8 ova/10ml. The age group 12-14 years had the highest prevalence rate(19.6%) and highest mean ova intensity (33.9 ova/10ml urine) while the age group 6-8 years had the lowest rate. Overall, light intensity was (7.4%) while heavy intensity was (2.7%). Among those infected, light intensity (73.5%) was significantly higher than heavy intensity (26.5%). There was statistical significance in the prevalence (P = 0.002) in relation to age group however, no significance in mean intensity (P > 0.05 among the age groups.

Higher prevalence of infection was seen in the public school (15.6%) children compared to private schools with statistical significance (P = 0.003) but there was no statistical significance in the mean intensity between them (P > 0.05). Boys had the higher prevalence (15.9%) than girls (4.2%) respectively with statistical significance between them in prevalence (P = 0.002).

Keywords: Schistosoma heamatobium, Anguwan Dodo.

Introduction

Schistosomiasis or bilharziasis named after Theodore Bilharz a German surgeon who worked in Cairo, he was the first person to identify the aetiological agent Schistosoma haematobium in 1851, and Schistosomiasis is a parasitic infection caused by the schistosomes or blood flukes that belong to the class Trematoda of the Phylum Platyhelminths.¹

Urinary schistosomiasis occurs as a result of chronic inflammation of the urinary bladder caused by the presence of schistosomes (eggs) of the helminth Schistosoma haematobium.² The other species of schistosoma such as japonicumand mansonicause chronic inflammatory disease of the liver and intestines respectively.² Although, infection with schistosomes do not always result in clinical manifestation, thus many infections are asymptomatic, infected individuals could however present with blood stained urine (often called male menstruation in men), painful micturition, and increased frequency of micturition². Other major clinical presentations by infected individuals include; anaemia, nutritional deficiencies, poor growth, renal impairment, and bladder cancers later on in life.³

Schistosomiasis isone of the Neglected Tropical Disease as classified by WHO, it is estimated to affect about 200 million people worldwide with over 700 million people at risk of getting infected with Sub-Saharan Africa bearing the greatest burden of the disease (93%), thusmaking it one of the most important parasitic infections in the tropics, coming second to Malaria affecting children more than adults with high morbidity and mortality amongst them.^4,5

The disease is endemic in the following African countries Ethiopia, Kenya, Cameroon, Uganda, Malawi, Mozambique, among others.⁶In Sub-Saharan Africa, it is endemic in Tanzania(19%), Ghana and DRC Congo (15%).⁷ In Nigeria alone, the prevalence of urinary schistosomiasis between 1994-2015 was estimated to be 34.7%.⁷

Previous studies done in the Federal Capital Territory showed prevalence of between 25-36.5% in typical communities with close proximity of human water contact activities such as playing and swimming in polluted rivers, washing and fetching water for house hold use, making them very vulnerable to infections, this is coupled with the fact that these communities lack or are in shortage of potable water supply, poor environmental sanitation, poverty, and ignorance⁸.

Several diagnostic procedures detect urinary schistosomiasis infection, this range from simple use of questionnaires to ask for blood in urine, physical inspection of urine for blood, and dipsticks to more complex procedures such as sedimentation technique, immunological techniques and the DNA PCR. For prevalence studies the sedimentation technique is the most widely used because of its simplicity and cost effectiveness¹⁰.

The most important method of control of transmission to break the cycle at various points  which include; provision of safe water, proper sanitation, snail control, mass treatment with praziquantel, and health education on risk the factors and preventive measures⁹.

Aim and objective

To determine the prevalence and intensity of urinary schistosomiasis among primary school children in Angwan-dodo community.

Methodology

Study Area

The study was conducted in Angwan-dodo a small semi-urban community in Gwagwalada area council of the Federal Capital Territory. It is bounded on the south-west by River Gwagwalada and on the east by Abuja-Lokoja road separating it from the main Gwagwalada town.

There is scarcity of data on the population characteristics of this community. The major inhabitants of the community are the Bassa, Gbagyi, Nupe people who are mostly uneducated with a mixed population of various other ethnic groups such as the Igbo’s, Hausa’s, Yoruba’s, and other minority ethnic nationals of Nigeria. Fishing is the predominant occupational activity carried out mainly by the Bassa people. Other recreational and domestic activities carried out in the river include; swimming, playing, bathing, washing, and defecation.

The river is most patronized during the dry season like (January to April) when there is scarcity of rain to provide water for household use.

The community has only one public school (LEA primary school) which is quite some distance away from the river with several small private schools scattered all over the community. There are reports of a high number of children mostly from the public school going to swim and play in the river after school hours. The community has no public health care centre but has patent medicine stores and private clinics that are run by non-doctors. Due to inadequate safe water supply to the community, the people depend on the river, well water and water vendors popularly known as the “Mairuwa” who get water from unknown source to sell to people in the community. Finally, the sanitation practices of the people are poor as refuse dumps litter the streets.

Study Population

The study population were primary school children between ages 6 to 17 within Angwan-dodo community of the one public primary school (LEA) in the community and over 15 private schools. The total population of school children in the community was about 2500.

Sampling Technique

A multistage sampling method was used.

Stage one was the selection of central ward from the ten wards in Gwagwalada Area Council using a simple random sampling method by way of balloting.

Stage two was the selection of Angwan-dodo community from among the 4 communities in the previously selected ward bordering Gwagwalada River using a simple random sampling.

Stage three was the assembling of all the schools in Angwan-dodo and stratification into private and public, then the selection of five private schools from the 15 private schools in Angwan-dodo using a simple random sampling method by balloting without replacement, and the only public school in the community, bringing the total number of schools to 6.

Half of the sample size (175) was selected from the five private schools (35 per school) while the remaining half (175) was selected from the only public school in the community (LEA primary school)

In each school, all the classes were stratified, and within each class participants were selected using the simple random sampling technique by balloting without replacement. Proportionate allocation was also used to select the required number of participants in each class.

Data Collection and sampling process

The procedure was explained to the subjects (study participants) and a number was assigned to each subject. Terminal urine samples (20ml) were collected into a labelled sterile universal bottle. Samples were collected between 10:00am and 2:00pm after a mild physical activity, as this coincides with the circadian rhythm of the eggs excretion in S. Haematobium Samples were collected within the school premises with the help of the teachers for the much younger age subjects. The samples were transported to the laboratory and immediately analysed.

Diagnostic Technique

Macroscopy examination of the urine samples for haematuria was done,followed by microscopic examination of the sediment after centrifugation of the urine sample. 10ml of each urine sample was poured into a test tube and then centrifuged for 5 minutes at 3000 rmp (revolution per minute) after which the supernatant was decanted and the sediment containing was examined under a light microscope at 10x and confirmed with40x objective.

Sample that showed the presence of ova of Schistosoma was recorded as positive while that without ova of Schistosoma was recorded as negative. For the positive samples, the ova was counted and each average count was recorded as number of ova’s/10ml of urine sample and categorized into light intensity (<50 ova/10ml of urine) and heavy intensity (≥50 ova/10ml of urine).

Results

A total of 336 respondents were studied with majority of the respondents being, 170 (50.6%) males,Mean age of the study population was 10.3 ± 2.3 years, with majority (44.3%) falling within 9-11 years age group,Based on ethnicity, majority of the respondents, 66 (19.6%) were Igbo by tribe while Bassa made up 8.3% of the respondents.

Mean ova intensity was 30.0 ± 17.2 SD with highest intensity being 33.9 ova/10ml and the lowest 8 ova/10ml. Highest prevalence of Schistosoma haematobium was in age group 12-14 (19.6%) so also was the mean intensity (33.9 ova/10ml urine) while prevalence was lower in age group 6-8 yrs. Overall, Light intensity was (7.4%) while heavy intensity was (2.7%). Among those infected, light intensity (73.5%) was significantly higher than heavy intensity (26.5%). There was statistical significance in the prevalence (P = 0.002) in relation to age group however, no significance in mean intensity (P > 0.05) among the age groups.

Higher prevalence of infection was seen in the public school (15.6%) compared to private schools with statistical significance (P = 0.003) but there was no statistical significance in the mean intensity between them (P > 0.05).

Figure 1: Prevalence in relation to ethnicity

Highest prevalence was observed among the Nupe respondents (19%), Gbagyi (17.6%) and Idoma (14.8%) ethnic groups while lowest prevalence was among Ebira, Egun, and Edo ethnic groups (0%). However, no statistical significance in prevalence amongst them.(P > 0.05).

Figure 2: Prevalence in relation to religion

Pupils who lived very near the river had the highest prevalence (13%) while pupils living outside Angwan-dodo had the lowest prevalence (0.0%). However, there was no statistical significance in prevalence in relation to closeness to the river. (P > 0.05).

Discussion

Prevalence and intensity

In this study the overall prevalence of urinary schistosomiasis was found to be 10.1%, this prevalence rate is classified by WHO as moderately endemic (>10% <50%)¹¹. This study has revealed that there is no much change in prevalence compared to the earliest study done in Gwagwalada 23 years ago which showed a prevalence rate of 10.3%¹², however the prevalence is much lower than what was reported (31.3%) in the FCT 9 years ago by Casmir IC etal ⁸. Other studies reported prevalence rate of 55.0% in Guma Benue¹³, 30.5% in Keffi Nasarawa¹⁴. The finding is however higher than 1.5% as reported by Akpan S.S etal in Ikom Cross River¹⁵. Compared to findings in other African countries, the prevalence in this study is higher than that reported in Malawi (6.9%)¹⁶, but lower than findings in Kumba Cameroun (32.1%)¹⁷and Zimbabwe (60%)¹⁸.

The mean egg intensity in this study was found to be 30.0 ± 17.2 SD with highest intensity being 59 eggs/10ml and the lowest intensity of 8 eggs/10ml. Other studies by Atalabi et alreported mean egg intensity of 25.0 eggs/10ml urine ± 71.5 SD around Zobe dam Kastina¹⁹, 1.11eggs/10ml urine in Abeokuta Ogun by Ekpo UF²⁰.

Among infected subjects, prevalence of light intensity of infection (73.5%) was significantly higher than heavy intensity (26.5%) and this is similar to other studies that reported a higher prevalence of light intensity (86.6%) relative to heavy intensity (13.3%) in Guma Nasarawa¹³, light intensity (55.3%), heavy intensity (44.7%) in Ajase-Ipo Kwara²¹, light intensity (94.4%), heavy intensity (5.6%) around Abua Rivers²².

Prevalence and intensity in relation to age and sex

Highest prevalence of S.haematobium was in age group 15-17 (25.0%) followed by age group 12-14 (19.6%) with statistical significance. Other studies reported highest prevalence among age group 6-12 years in Gwagwalada Abuja¹², 9-12 years (19.1%) at Abua Rivers state²², 9-12years (2.6%) in Ikom Cross River¹⁵, 13-15 years (67.5%) around Zobe dam Kastina¹⁹, and 11-13 (24.8%) in Nguru Yobe²³.

Highest mean intensity (33.9eggs/10ml urine), Light intensity (13.0%) and heavy intensity (6.5%) were in age group 12-14 years however, with no statistical significance in mean intensity (P > 0.05). A study done around Zobe dam Kastina reported highest mean intensity of 28.9eggs/10ml urine among children within age group 10-12years with statistical significance (P<0.05)¹⁹. Other studies reported a higher intensity among age groups 9-12years (15.6%) in Ajase-Ipo Kwara²², 11-15years (27.8%) Guma Nasarawa¹³ with no statistical significance (P>0.05).

Boys had a higher prevalence (15.9%) and mean intensity(30.7eggs/10ml urine) compared to girls (4.2% prevalence with mean intensity 27.1eggs/10ml urine) with statistical significance of (P=0.001) but no significance in mean intensity (P>0.05) between them. This is comparable to a similar study done around Zobe dam Kastina which reported a higher prevalence (55.8%) and intensity (28.7 eggs/10 ml of urine) among boys compared to girls (2.83 eggs/10 ml of urine).¹⁹Similarly studies done in Ajase-Ipo Kwara²², Guma Nasarawa¹³, and Ezza-North Ebonyi corroborated this findings.²⁴ However, some studies reported equal to or higher prevalence among girls (59.2%) than in boys (57.1%) in Abeokuta Ogun²⁵,girls (15.5%) and boys (15.0%) in Keffi Nasarawa¹⁴ with no statistical signifcance. Possible explanation for the higher prevalence and intensity in boys than girls could be attributed to the adventurous nature of boys.

Prevalence in relation to ethnicity

Based on ethnicity, the highest prevalence was observed among the Nupe respondents (19%), Gbagyi (17.6%) and Idoma (14.8%) ethnic groups. However, there was no statistical significance in prevalence amongst them. (P > 0.05).Though majority of the study participants were Igbo’s, (19.6%) there was zero prevalence of infection in this ethnic group. The Bassa’s are one of the predominant ethnic groups in the community made up of 8.3% of the respondents with the prevalence of urinary schistosomiasis amongst them at (10.7%).

Conclusion/Recommendation

Overall prevalence of urinary schistosomiasis was 10.1%with amean egg intensity of 30ova/10ml urine sample ± 17.2SD. Light intensity (73.5%) was significantly higher than heavy intensity (26.5%).  Similar to other studies, this study identified age, sex, type of school, the highest prevalence of urinary schistosomiasis was seen among pupils in age group 15-17 (25%), boys (15.9%), children in the public school (15.6%).

Based on the findings of this study, an integrated approach to the eradication of urinary schistosomiasisis recommended to the Government, the schools and the community as follows-:

Creation of public awareness on the dangers of this disease and its mode of infection is important towards the control of schistosomiasis

Creation of barrier to prevent the children from gaining access to play in the river

Provision of sustainable chemotherapeutic intervention with Praziquantel® to reduce its prevalence below the threshold of public health significance.

Acknowledgement

The authors wish to acknowledge and appreciate the cooperation of those school children that make up the study population

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The post Prevalence and Intensity of urinary Schistosomiasis in school children of Anguwan –dodo, a semi-urban community in Gwagwalada, Abuja appeared first on Microbioz Journals.

1 Department of Community Medicine, University of Abuja, Abuja

Email: biyayanwankwo@yahoo.com

Phone: +234-8023805229

2 University of Abuja Teaching Hospital Gwagwalada

Abstract

Schistosomiasis or bilharziasis was named after Theodore Bilharz a German surgeon who worked in Cairo. He was the first person to identify the aetiological agent Schistosoma haematobium in 1851¹.Urinary schistosomiasis is a chronic inflammatory disease that affects urinary bladder caused by the schistosomes (eggs) laid by the helminth Schistosoma haematobium.²

The aim of the study was to determine the prevalence and intensity of urinary schistosomiasis among primary school children in Angwan-dodo community.

A multistage sampling method was used.Using a sterile universal bottle, urine samples were obtained from the subjects and transported immediately to the laboratory for analysis.

A total number of 336 samples were examined for the presence of the ova of Schistosoma among children within the ages of 6-17years in Angwan Dodo.Mean egg intensity was 30.0 ± 17.2 standard deviation(SD) with highest intensity being 59 eggs/10ml and the lowest 8 ova/10ml. The age group 12-14 years had the highest prevalence rate(19.6%) and highest mean ova intensity (33.9 ova/10ml urine) while the age group 6-8 years had the lowest rate. Overall, light intensity was (7.4%) while heavy intensity was (2.7%). Among those infected, light intensity (73.5%) was significantly higher than heavy intensity (26.5%). There was statistical significance in the prevalence (P = 0.002) in relation to age group however, no significance in mean intensity (P > 0.05 among the age groups.

Higher prevalence of infection was seen in the public school (15.6%) children compared to private schools with statistical significance (P = 0.003) but there was no statistical significance in the mean intensity between them (P > 0.05). Boys had the higher prevalence (15.9%) than girls (4.2%) respectively with statistical significance between them in prevalence (P = 0.002).

The post Prevalence and Intensity of urinary Schistosomiasis in school children of Anguwan –dodo, a semi-urban community in Gwagwalada, Abuja appeared first on Microbioz Journals.